NCE Human Growth and Development 3 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's stages of grief (DABDA) have been widely used in counseling. Which stage involves bargaining with a higher power or fate to undo the loss?
- Denial
- Anger
- Bargaining (Correct answer)
- Depression
Correct answer: Bargaining
The Bargaining stage involves attempts to negotiate with God, fate, or medical professionals -- 'If only I had done X, this wouldn't have happened' or 'If you let me live, I promise to...' It reflects an attempt to regain control.
Kubler-Ross's five stages (from 'On Death and Dying,' 1969): Denial (shock, protecting oneself from painful reality), Anger (at the situation, caregiver, self, or God), Bargaining (attempts to regain control through negotiation), Depression (sadness, withdrawal, recognizing the full loss), Acceptance (coming to terms with the reality). Important caveats: these stages are not linear, not universal, not mandatory -- they are common patterns, not a prescription.
Question 2: Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory identifies the 'mesosystem' as:
- The broader cultural and societal context affecting development
- The connections and interactions between microsystems (Correct answer)
- The child's immediate family and peer environments
- The indirect influences of institutions and settings not directly containing the child
Correct answer: The connections and interactions between microsystems
The mesosystem represents the relationships and interactions between different microsystems in a child's life -- for example, the connection between home and school, or between family and peer group.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory: Microsystem (immediate settings: family, school, peers), Mesosystem (connections between microsystems: parent-teacher relationships, family-peer interactions), Exosystem (settings without the child that still affect them: parent's workplace, neighborhood), Macrosystem (cultural values, laws, economic systems, social norms), Chronosystem (temporal dimension: historical events, timing of transitions).
Question 3: Research on late adulthood (65+) suggests that cognitive decline is NOT uniform. Which cognitive ability is MOST preserved in healthy aging?
- Processing speed
- Working memory capacity
- Crystallized intelligence (Correct answer)
- Executive function speed
Correct answer: Crystallized intelligence
Crystallized intelligence -- accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, and verbal skills -- tends to be well preserved or even increase with age. Fluid intelligence (processing speed, working memory) declines with aging.
Cattell and Horn's Fluid-Crystallized Intelligence theory: Fluid intelligence (Gf) = novel problem-solving, processing speed, working memory -- peaks in early adulthood, declines with age. Crystallized intelligence (Gc) = accumulated knowledge, verbal ability, cultural learning -- continues growing into late adulthood. This distinction is important for counselors working with older adults: they should not assume general cognitive decline. Normal aging involves reduced speed, not loss of knowledge or wisdom.
Question 4: The 'nature versus nurture' debate in developmental psychology refers to:
- The conflict between biological drives and social norms
- The ongoing inquiry into the relative contributions of genetics and environment to development (Correct answer)
- Whether children develop through stages or continuously
- The question of whether development is universal or culturally specific
Correct answer: The ongoing inquiry into the relative contributions of genetics and environment to development
The nature-nurture debate addresses how much of human development is determined by genetic/biological factors (nature) versus environmental/experiential factors (nurture). Contemporary science recognizes a bidirectional interaction.
Modern developmental science rejects simple either/or positions. Gene-environment interaction: genes are expressed differently depending on environmental conditions. Epigenetics: environmental experiences can modify gene expression without changing DNA sequence. Developmental psychopathology applies a diathesis-stress perspective. Behavioral genetics (twin and adoption studies) estimates heritability of traits, but heritability is not destiny. Counselors embrace a biopsychosocial model recognizing all three dimensions.
Question 5: According to Bandura's Social Learning Theory, which process is MOST critical for observational learning to result in actual behavior change?
- Contiguity (stimuli must occur close together in time)
- Self-efficacy and outcome expectations about the modeled behavior (Correct answer)
- Extinction of competing behaviors through punishment
- Unconscious identification with the model
Correct answer: Self-efficacy and outcome expectations about the modeled behavior
Bandura emphasized that observational learning requires four processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation. Motivation is directly linked to self-efficacy (can I do this?) and outcome expectations (will it lead to good outcomes?), making these critical to actual behavior change.
Bandura's four processes of observational learning: (1) Attention -- noticing the model's behavior; (2) Retention -- encoding and remembering the behavior; (3) Reproduction -- having the physical/cognitive ability to perform the behavior; (4) Motivation -- reasons to perform the behavior (reinforcement observed in model, anticipated outcomes, self-efficacy). Self-efficacy beliefs are the most powerful predictor of whether observational learning translates to behavior.
Question 6: In the context of adolescent development, which developmental task did Erikson associate with the fifth stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion?
- Developing basic trust in caregivers
- Forming intimate relationships with peers and partners
- Developing a coherent and stable sense of self across roles and contexts (Correct answer)
- Achieving generativity through parenting or career contributions
Correct answer: Developing a coherent and stable sense of self across roles and contexts
The central task of Erikson's Identity vs. Role Confusion stage (adolescence, roughly 12-18) is forming a stable, coherent sense of personal identity -- integrating previous experiences and roles into a unified self-concept.
Erikson saw the adolescent identity crisis as a normative psychosocial moratorium -- a period of socially sanctioned exploration before adult commitments. Successfully navigating this stage yields the ego strength of Fidelity (ability to sustain commitments and loyalty). Role Confusion results when the adolescent cannot integrate various roles and experiences into a coherent identity. James Marcia operationalized Erikson's concept through four identity statuses based on exploration and commitment.
NCE Human Growth and Development 3
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's stages of grief (DABDA) have been widely used in counseling.
Which stage involves bargaining with a higher power or fate to undo the loss?