LMHC Counseling Research and Program Evaluation 1 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: Which type of research design allows a researcher to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables?
- Correlational research
- Case study research
- True experimental research (Correct answer)
- Descriptive research
Correct answer: True experimental research
True experimental research uses random assignment to control and experimental groups, allowing researchers to attribute differences in outcomes to the independent variable.
True experimental research is the gold standard for establishing causality. Key elements include: random assignment (participants randomly assigned to conditions), a control group, and manipulation of the independent variable. Random assignment controls for extraneous variables, allowing the researcher to infer that differences in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable. Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment. Correlational studies show relationships but cannot establish causality.
Question 2: In research on counseling outcomes, the term 'internal validity' refers to:
- The degree to which results can be generalized to other populations
- The consistency of a measurement instrument across time and raters
- The degree to which the study accurately measures the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (Correct answer)
- The ethical standards followed during data collection
Correct answer: The degree to which the study accurately measures the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Internal validity is the confidence that the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable — that the results are not due to confounding variables.
Internal validity refers to how well a study establishes that the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable, rather than confounding factors. Threats to internal validity include history, maturation, testing effects, instrumentation changes, regression to the mean, selection bias, and attrition. External validity refers to generalizability. Reliability refers to consistency of measurement. Counselors reviewing research must critically evaluate internal validity to assess whether findings are meaningful.
Question 3: A counselor reads a research study reporting that the correlation between social support and depression is r = -0.65. Which of the following is the BEST interpretation of this finding?
- Social support causes lower depression scores
- Higher social support is strongly associated with lower depression scores (Correct answer)
- There is no meaningful relationship between social support and depression
- Social support explains 65% of the variance in depression
Correct answer: Higher social support is strongly associated with lower depression scores
r = -0.65 indicates a strong negative correlation — as social support increases, depression scores tend to decrease. Correlation does not imply causation.
Correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1. The negative sign indicates direction (as social support increases, depression decreases). The magnitude .65 is a moderately strong correlation. To calculate the percentage of variance explained, square r: 0.65² = 0.42 = 42% (not 65%). Crucially, correlation does not establish causation. Counselors must be careful not to over-interpret correlational findings.
Question 4: The ethical principle of 'beneficence' in research (as outlined in the Belmont Report) requires that:
- Research participants are selected fairly without exploiting vulnerable populations
- Researchers maximize benefits and minimize harms to research participants (Correct answer)
- Informed consent is obtained from all participants before the study begins
- Research participants are free from coercion and can withdraw at any time
Correct answer: Researchers maximize benefits and minimize harms to research participants
The Belmont Report's principle of beneficence requires researchers to maximize benefits and minimize risks to participants.
The Belmont Report (1979) established three foundational principles for ethical research: (1) Respect for Persons (autonomy; informed consent), (2) Beneficence (maximize benefits, minimize harms), and (3) Justice (equitable selection of participants). These principles guide IRB review and research ethics in all fields including counseling research.
Question 5: Which of the following BEST describes 'evidence-based practice' (EBP) as applied in counseling?
- Using only treatments with randomized controlled trial (RCT) support, regardless of client preferences
- Integrating the best available research evidence with clinical expertise and client values and preferences (Correct answer)
- Applying theoretical knowledge without regard to current research findings
- Following agency policies regardless of available research evidence
Correct answer: Integrating the best available research evidence with clinical expertise and client values and preferences
EBP is the integration of the best research evidence, clinical expertise, and client values/preferences — not strict adherence to RCT findings alone.
The Institute of Medicine (2001) defined evidence-based practice as 'the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values.' In counseling, EBP requires counselors to: be aware of the best available research on effective treatments; integrate that knowledge with their clinical expertise; and consider the client's cultural background, values, and preferences. This tripartite model prevents both blind adherence to manualized protocols and equally blind rejection of research evidence.
Question 6: A counselor conducting a program evaluation wants to assess whether a 10-week psychoeducation group reduced participants' symptoms of anxiety. Which type of evaluation is MOST appropriate?
- Needs assessment
- Process evaluation
- Outcome evaluation (Correct answer)
- Cost-benefit analysis
Correct answer: Outcome evaluation
Outcome evaluation measures whether an intervention achieved its intended goals — in this case, reducing anxiety symptoms — by assessing change from pre- to post-intervention.
Program evaluation includes several types: needs assessment (Is there a problem and what is needed?), process evaluation (Is the program being implemented as planned?), outcome evaluation (Did participants achieve the intended outcomes?), and cost-benefit analysis (Is the program worth the cost?). An outcome evaluation is most appropriate here — using pre/post measures of anxiety symptoms to determine whether the group intervention produced the intended change.
LMHC Counseling Research and Program Evaluation 1
Which type of research design allows a researcher to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables?